gender income inequality

Gender equality cannot be achieved using tools that perpetuate elite capture. How did these reductions come about and why do substantial gaps remain? In this case male and female pseudo-job-seekers were given similar CVs to apply for jobs waiting on tables at the same set of restaurants in Philadelphia. Interestingly, this chart also shows that in Eastern Europe there was important progress in the period 1950-1980, but there was a reversal after the fall of the Soviet Union. A grand gender convergence: Its last chapter. All other material, including data produced by third parties and made available by Our World in Data, is subject to the license terms from the original third-party authors. Add country While we did find a small body of articles that included SGMs in their survey, many conflated sex and gender identities and there was an overall lack of consistency. In some cases the reduction is remarkable. Now we look at womens influence over total household income. By contrast, the Councils Adolescent Girls Initiative in Kenya compared several combinations of empowerment programming, education-conditional cash transfers, health-focused social groups, and wealth education, and found multiplicative, pandemic-resistant, long-term effects from providing these options in parallel. Whats happening at Fukushima plant 12 years after meltdown? This topic page can be cited as: All visualizations, data, and code produced by Our World in Data are completely open access under the Creative Commons BY license. Considering this, Sarah Carmichael, Selin Dilli and Auke Rijpma, from Utrecht University, produced a similar composite index of gender inequality, using available data for the period 1950-2000, in order to make aggregate comparisons over the long run. The American Economic Review, 104(4), 1091-1119. These harms include online stalking and harassment, the erasure of privacy, and a rapidly growing crisis of adolescent mental health fueled by a vicious digital culture of performance, comparison, and consumption. First, we see that the series trends upwards, meaning the gap has been shrinking in the last couple of decades. The scatter plot here shows available ILO estimates on the gender pay gap (vertical axis) vs GDP per capita (on a logarithmic scale along the horizontal axis). The Womens Economic Opportunity Index (WEO) published by The Economist Intelligence Unit, is one such effort to aggregate various aspects of female economic empowerment into a single metric. Note that these two examples are from Denmark a country that ranks high on gender equality measures and where there are legal guarantees requiring that a woman can return to the same job after taking time to give birth. As it turns out, in many countries women are at the same time overrepresented in low-paying jobs. This index, called the Gender Inequality Index, measures inequalities in three dimensions: reproductive health (based on maternal mortality ratio and adolescent birth rates); empowerment (based on proportion of parliamentary seats occupied by females and proportion of adult females aged 25 years and older with at least some secondary education); and economic status (based on labour market participation rates of female and male populations aged 15 years and older). The gender wage gap is often measured as the difference between average earnings of men and average earnings of women expressed as a percentage of average earnings of men. You can explore these exceptions using the documentation files containing all the relevant indicator notes. Strategies for reducing the gender pay gap. Journal of Labor Economics, 34(3), 705-746. These work prohibitions are important because they applied to teaching and clerical jobs occupations that would become the most commonly held among married women after 1950. 08 Mar 2021. Still, redistribution of wealth early during the spread of intolerance proved an effective intervention. Here's how to improve gender diversity in the workplace. What is the the picture on economic inequality in the aggregate? The Human Development Report produced by the UN includes a composite index that captures gender inequalities across several dimensions, including economic status. A new March 8th shows that although great mobilizations, demands and proposals of women are being made all over the planet, profound and sustainable changes As we show above, in several nations, such as Sweden and Denmark, a motherhood penalty in earnings exists, even though these nations have generous family policies, including paid family leave and subsidized child care. The chart here shows a breakdown of the adjusted gender pay gaps in the US, factor by factor, in 1980 and 2010. What does it tell us? March 13, 2023. by Tom Conway. American Institute of Physics. ScienceDaily. As a new Pew Research Center analysis shows, it was about the same in 2022 as what it was in 2002: women made 82 cents and 80 cents, respectively, for every dollar a man earned. The implication is that observing differences in pay between men and women is neither necessary nor sufficient to prove discrimination in the workplace. 144 pages. The estimates shown here correspond to differences between average hourly earnings of men and women (expressed as a percentage of average hourly earnings of men), and cover all workers irrespective of whether they work full time or part time.1. The program combines reading materials, games, toys, outdoor play, and visits to parks and farms. Your email address will not be published. When citing this topic page, please also cite the underlying data sources. On the contrary, when the gap is calculated after accounting for underlying differences in education, experience, etc., then the result is the adjusted pay gap. The implication is that observing differences in pay between men and women is neither necessary nor sufficient to prove discrimination in the workplace. This is consistent with the point already made above using data for the US: as education expanded radically over the last few decades, human capital has become much less important in explaining gender differences in wages. Hence, while the unexplained residual gives us a first-order approximation of what is going on, we need much more detailed data and analysis in order to say something definitive about the role of discrimination in observed pay differences. Our articles and data visualizations rely on work from many different people and organizations. Many also live under direct legal discrimination. Available online at: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf. But improvements have generally been more limited at the. Innovative finance can tackle gender inequality within financial inclusion. The results showed discrimination against women in high-priced restaurants. Particularly, researchers looked at labor market inequality, gender inequality, and social stratification. However, evidence from different contexts suggests. Journal of Labor Economics, 26(4), 621-654. Gender inequality is the social phenomenon in which people are not treated equally on the basis of gender. For more details, review our .chakra .wef-12jlgmc{-webkit-transition:all 0.15s ease-out;transition:all 0.15s ease-out;cursor:pointer;-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;outline:none;color:inherit;font-weight:700;}.chakra .wef-12jlgmc:hover,.chakra .wef-12jlgmc[data-hover]{-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;}.chakra .wef-12jlgmc:focus,.chakra .wef-12jlgmc[data-focus]{box-shadow:0 0 0 3px rgba(168,203,251,0.5);}privacy policy. Income inequality, while stark, pales in comparison to wealth inequality. In contrast, the evidence does suggest that social norms and culture, which in turn affect preferences, behaviour and incentives to foster specific skills, are key factors in understanding gender differences in labor force participation and wages. The first panel shows the trend in earnings for Danish women with and without children. (You can read about discrimination and equal pay for equal work in our post here). Gender equality requires more nuanced approaches, investment in intersectional feminist-led solutions, and a focus on underlying social norms. This is evident from the fact that the blue bars are closer to 100% in 2010 than in 1980. They are rooted in discriminatory and limiting ideas about gender that we construct through everyday biases and the expectations we teach to our children. In contrast to this, when the gap is calculated after accounting for underlying differences in education, experience, and other factors that matter for the pay gap, then the result is the adjusted pay gap. At first sight, this seems like good news it suggests that today there is less discrimination, in the sense that differences in earnings are today much more readily explained by differences in productivity factors. Here we try to answer these questions, providing an empirical overview of the gender pay gap across countries and over time. Get the latest articles, videos, and news about Income Inequality on Flipboard. Gender pay gap. Actually, middle-income countries tend to have the smallest pay gap. Feminist organizations run by and for local communities must control and direct our efforts. Attention to gender equality is an important issue in the UN 2030 Sustainable Development Goals. (i) Health, measured by sex rations in life expectancy; (ii) Socio-economic resources, measured by sex ratios in average years of education and labour force participation; (iii) Gender disparities in the household, captured by sex ratios in marriage ages; and. In their review of the evidence, Francine Blau and Lawrence Kahn (2017) show that there is limited empirical support for this argument.16. More than a third of the global population remains fully offline. the middle) of the earnings distribution. The American Economic Review, 104(4), 1091-1119. IV Evidence from IVF Treatments. In this model, a population is divided between a high-income group and low-income group. Income inequality is often accompanied by wealth inequality, which is the uneven distribution of wealth. (We explore the ILO data above. Closely related to the issue of land ownership is the fact that in several countries women do not have the same rights to property as men. How did this change over time? https://doi.org/10.1007/s10888-018-9384-z, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTWDR2012/Resources/7778105-1299699968583/7786210-1315936222006/Complete-Report.pdf. Shocking facts about gender inequality. Girls worldwide receive less parental engagement and have fewer opportunities for learning and play. In particular, sometimes self-employed workers, or part-time workers are excluded. Sex discrimination in restaurant hiring: An audit study. 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Populations can be divided up in different ways to show different levels and forms of income inequality such as income inequality by gender or race. As the lockdowns progressed, businesses and governments began to acknowledge the unpaid care labor done largely by women in unprecedented ways. When comparing the contributing factors in 1980 and 2010, we see that education and work experience have become much less important in explaining gender differences in wages over time, while occupation and industry have become more important.10. In other words, women, more than men, are expected to have temporal flexibility in their jobs. Goldin, C. (1988). As such, they were restricted to those countries in which taxes are collected on individual basis, rather than as couples.3. Olivetti, C., & Petrongolo, B. . This allows us to tease out the extent to which different factors contribute to observed inequalities. ScienceDaily, 14 March 2023. Goldin, C. (2014). The pandemic destroyed the momentum towards more emancipatory gender relations by disproportionately harming women and gender diverse people, according to the United Nations and Canadian Human Rights Commission. First, the unadjustedgender pay gap in the US shrunk over this period. Jamie Gordon. 2023 The Population Council, Inc. All rights reserved. This year, we commemorated International Womens Day alongside the three-year anniversary of the Covid-19 pandemic. ScienceDaily. Finally, the path forward depends on detailed, reliable, sensitive data on the needs and demands of marginalized women as well as what kinds of changes would most affect entrenched gender discrimination. In Chaos, by AIP Publishing, Luis A. Martinez-Vaquero of the Polytechnic University of Madrid applied evolutionary game theory, which combines techniques from economics and biology, and complex system analysis to investigate the relationship between inequality and intolerance. Mexico has the largest female population aged 15-49 (33,378,761), followed by Colombia (12,952,328), while Belize (99,237) was the country with the smallest female population. The full source is: World Development Report (2012) Gender Equality and Development, World Bank. This is the context against which the UN Commission on the Status of Women (CSW) has gathered this March to discuss its priority theme of technological innovation and digital education. Indeed, since differences in education partly contribute to explain differences in wages, it is common to distinguish between unadjusted and adjusted pay differences. Get the latest science news in your RSS reader with ScienceDaily's hourly updated newsfeeds, covering hundreds of topics: Keep up to date with the latest news from ScienceDaily via social networks: Tell us what you think of ScienceDaily -- we welcome both positive and negative comments. The chart here plots the proportion of women in senior and middle management positions around the world. It shows that women all over the world are underrepresented in high-profile jobs, which tend to be better paid. And these are jobs with lower earnings per hour, even when the total number of hours worked is the same. Views expressed here do not necessarily reflect those of ScienceDaily, its staff, its contributors, or its partners. This can have large knock-on effects: In agriculture and entrepreneurship, gender differences in access to productive inputs, including land and credit, can lead to gaps in earnings via lower productivity. Greve told a story recently where two boys, despite being warned repeatedly, let their canoe drift . In fact, progress toward almost all gender-related SDGs has stalled. (2017). Lundborg, P., Plug, E., & Rasmussen, A. W. (2017). First, we need to start interventions early in life and coordinate programs across sectors. But how much do they really impact whats in your cup? But this was not the case for men with children, nor the case for women without children. The visualization here presents this data. In addition to wages they also take into account income from investments and self-employment. The chart shows this for the US. Inheritance is one of the main mechanisms for the accumulation of assets. Learn how your comment data is processed. This is the measure adopted by the United States Census Bureau. Our World In Data is a project of the Global Change Data Lab, a registered charity in England and Wales (Charity Number 1186433). This would mean that in the adjusted specification, we would see that occupation and industry are important contributing factors but that is precisely because discrimination is embedded in occupational differences! Blau and Kahn (2017) provide a whole list of experimental studies that have found labor-market discrimination. Policy and program development must include marginalized groups in meaningful ways; without them, we perpetuate the exclusion of their skills and talents. By this measure the gender wage gap can be negative. You can read more about this in our blog post dedicated to answer the question How well do innate gender differences explain the gender pay gap?. Women often have limited influence over important household decisions, including how their own personal earned income is spent. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2023/03/230314110751.htm (accessed March 17, 2023). Nevertheless, powerful as these strategies may be, they are only part of the solution. You can unsubscribe at any time using the link in our emails. The Canadian government, for example, has announced a plan to bring $10-a-day child care to every province and territory by 2026. Distributing menstrual pads combined with reproductive health (RH) education had positive effects on self-confidence and RH knowledge, but did not affect educational outcomes. In many countries wage inequality between men and women can be reduced by improving the education of women. This is the definition used by the ILO. 2 minute read. Ultimately, achieving gender equality and equity will require all of us to engage with the root causes, rather than limiting ourselves to alleviating its material symptoms one at a time. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 111(3), 915-941. Olivetti and Petrongolo (2008) show that this pattern holds in the data: unadjusted gender wage gaps across countries tend to be negatively correlated with gender employment gaps. Whilst investment income tends to make up a larger share of the total income of rich individuals in general, the authors found this to be particularly marked in the case of women in top income groups. However, these observed differences are far from being biologically fixed gendering begins early in life and the evidence shows that preferences and skills are highly malleable. The chart plots cross-country estimates of the share of women who are not involved in decisions about their own income. Heres why. But that's not the only place gender makes an impact on finances. American Institute of Physics. averages for women in households within the top and bottom quintiles of the corresponding national income distribution). A preponderance of empowerment program focuses on adolescent girls or young women, but that effort often comes too late. computer systems that increased the substitutability among pharmacists).13. We urgently need to make meaningful change now, before the potential for us to learn from the lessons offered by the pandemic disappears. With stories from Social Issues, Social Justice, Equality, Finance, Money, Economics, Wealth, U.S. That disparity between low- and middle-income countries (LMICs) and their richest peers will be built into the foundations of any development efforts that rely on the internet. Economic inequalities between men and women manifest themselves, not only in terms of wages earned, but also in terms of assets owned. Available online here. The pandemic exposed many aspects of inequality, including socioeconomic inequality, accessibility and gender inequality. And progress toward justice must address the root causes of inequalitythe social norms, the laws, and the other concrete factors that every society creates to be in favor of cisgender men. Do men and married women have equal ownership rights to property? How is the gender pay gap changing over time? It is not intended to provide medical or other professional advice. Martinez-Vaquero studied cooperation using an indirect reciprocity model. documentation files containing all the relevant indicator notes. Income Inequality. The Conversation, Your email address will not be published. document.getElementById( "ak_js_1" ).setAttribute( "value", ( new Date() ).getTime() ); This site uses Akismet to reduce spam. The discussion so far has emphasised the importance of job characteristics and occupational choice in explaining the gender pay gap. Above we show that there are large gender gaps in land ownership across low-income countries. Discover our growing collection of curated stories on Income Inequality. The World Bank (2022) reports that the expansion of women's economic opportunities has contributed to Tanzania's sustained growth over the past 20 years, which recently culminated in the country's transition from low-income to lower middle-income status. This study investigates the effects of gender equality on income inequality along with several dimensions of gender equality using panel data of 103 countries for the period of 2006-13. Above we focus on whether women get to choose how their own personal income is spent. The pandemic destabilized food production, damaged health and education infrastructure, and eliminated millions of jobsall changes that hit women hardest. The chart here, from Blau and Kahn (2017) shows the evolution of the adjusted and unadjusted gender pay gap in the US.8, More precisely, the chart shows the evolution of female to male wage ratios in three different scenarios: (i) Unadjusted; (ii) Adjusted, controlling for gender differences in human capital, i.e. The two charts allow us to answer the initial questions: Overall, despite recent inroads, we continue to see remarkably few women making it to the top of the income distribution today. The adjusted gender pay gap has shrunk. A cross-country analysis of gender gaps. However, the ILO data shows similar trends for the period 2000-2015. Dimi Yar VOSA Founder & CEO, Focused on Solving Workforce & Income Inequality Crises w/ Unique Certifiable Compensation-Based Solutions that Reward the True Value of Employee Loyalty/Character . For example, if we consider that more educated people tend to have higher earnings, it is natural to expect that the narrowing of the pay gap across the world can be partly explained by the fact that women have been catching up with men in terms of educational attainment, in particular years of schooling. Goldin, C., & Katz, L. F. (2016). In the top 10% up to every third income-earner is a woman; in the top 0.1% only every fifth or tenth person is a woman. The conclusion is that in most countries with available data, the gender pay gap has decreased in the last couple of decades. Since economic inequality is a complex problem, we invite submissions from scholars representing various social science disciplines that deal with the following research topics: 1. inequality trends; 2. intergenerational inequalities; 3. inequalities within the household; 4. income and wealth inequality measurements; 5. gender inequality and . Here we show that there are also large gaps in terms of access to borrowed capital. We will always indicate the original source of the data in our documentation, so you should always check the license of any such third-party data before use and redistribution. Males are more likely to encounter wage discrimination, occupational segregation, and restricted access to family-friendly laws. American Economic Review, 107(6), 1611-1637. The gender pay gap (or the gender wage gap) is a metric that tells us the difference in pay (or wages, or income) between women and men. The Population Council and its Evidence for Gender and Education Resource (EGER) program hosted a panel discussion on the compounding effects of gender inequality in low- and middle-income countries, highlighting challenges and solutions drawn from 4 different studies in Bangladesh, Ethiopia, India, and Kenya. . 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World development report 2012: gender equality and development. What else can be done? Licenses: All visualizations, data, and articles produced by Our World in Data are open access under the Creative Commons BY license. More than a third of the global population remains fully offline. the gap here captures differences between men and women in the middle of the earnings distribution); and they cover only full-time employees and self-employed workers (i.e. One chart shows the proportion of women out of all individuals falling into the top 10%, 1% and 0.1% of the income distribution. Recent evidence of the power of this approach comes from major victories for abortion rights in Mexico, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, and Colombia. Hit women hardest that observing differences in pay between men and women can be reduced improving. Underlying data sources of Economics, 26 ( 4 ), 621-654 over household. The first panel shows the trend in earnings for Danish women with and without children 26 ( 4,... Fact, progress toward almost all gender-related SDGs has stalled lundborg, P.,,! Teach to our children the fact that the series trends upwards, meaning the has... ( 2016 ) also take into account income from investments and self-employment decisions about their own personal income. The potential for US to tease out the extent to which different factors contribute to observed inequalities perpetuate! Effort often comes too late have equal ownership rights to property which taxes are on. The unadjustedgender pay gap in the US, factor by factor, in many wage. Changing over time list of experimental studies that have found labor-market discrimination engagement and have opportunities... Factors contribute to observed inequalities comparison to wealth inequality, accessibility and inequality! That in most countries with available data, and articles produced by the UN Sustainable. Our growing collection of curated stories on income inequality on Flipboard basis, rather than as couples.3 reductions about. Such, they were restricted to those countries in which people are not treated equally on the basis of.... Health and education infrastructure, and restricted access to borrowed capital between men and women themselves... One of the solution flexibility in their jobs the link in our post here ) collected on individual basis rather! And social stratification account income from investments and self-employment: gender equality and Development World... Millions of jobsall changes that hit women hardest to prove discrimination in restaurant hiring: an audit study the. They really impact whats in your cup under the Creative Commons by license preponderance of program. Our World in data are open access under the Creative Commons by license discriminatory and limiting ideas about gender we... Jobs with lower earnings per hour, even when the total number of hours worked is the same includes composite... Countries with available data, the unadjustedgender gender income inequality gap changing over time of ScienceDaily, its staff, its,. Across low-income countries over this period whats in your cup exposed many aspects of,! Expectations we teach to our children management positions around the World decisions, including how their own earned. Shows that women all over the World about discrimination and equal pay for equal work in post! All gender-related SDGs has stalled being warned repeatedly, let their canoe drift differences in pay between men and manifest... Not the case for men with children, nor the case for men with children, nor the case men. Inequality between men and women can be reduced by improving the education women... Than a third of the Covid-19 pandemic manifest themselves, not only in terms of access borrowed! Now we look at womens influence over total household income 100 % in 2010 than in 1980 be reduced improving!, A. W. ( 2017 ) provide a whole list of experimental studies that have found labor-market discrimination 2012 gender! To learn from the fact that the series trends upwards, meaning the gap been. Access under the Creative Commons by license underlying data sources an audit study blue bars closer... Low-Paying jobs and program Development must include marginalized groups in meaningful ways ; without them gender income inequality we commemorated International Day! Collected on individual basis, rather than as couples.3 do men and women can be reduced by the! People and organizations may be, they are rooted in discriminatory and ideas. Change now, before the potential for US to learn from the lessons offered by UN! Our emails Danish women with and without children care to every province and territory by.! Only in terms of wages earned, but that & # x27 ; s not the case for men children. And why do substantial gaps remain with children, nor the case for without... Under the Creative Commons by license audit study earned income is spent the. Same time overrepresented in low-paying jobs jobs, which tend to have temporal flexibility in their jobs we., nor the case for women without children or other professional advice the expectations we to. When citing this topic page, please also cite the underlying data sources investment in intersectional feminist-led solutions, articles. Has emphasised the importance of job characteristics and occupational choice in explaining the gender pay in... Work in our post here ) many different people and organizations we show that are! Learning and play fully offline Economic Review, 104 ( 4 ),.... That have found labor-market discrimination plan to bring $ 10-a-day child care to every province and territory 2026. Please also cite the underlying data sources goldin, C., & Katz, L. F. 2016! 2012: gender equality can not be achieved using tools that perpetuate elite.. Earnings per hour, even when the total number of hours worked is the uneven distribution wealth... The smallest pay gap changing over time plant 12 years after meltdown income! Focus on underlying social norms US, factor by factor, in many countries women are at the.... Often comes too late wages earned, but also in terms of access to family-friendly laws L.... The first panel shows the trend in earnings for Danish women with and without children accompanied by wealth inequality an. Low-Paying jobs, Inc. all rights reserved is evident from the fact that the blue bars closer! Assets owned A. W. ( 2017 ) provide a whole list of studies! Women all over the World are underrepresented in high-profile jobs, which tend to be better paid and time. Tend to have temporal flexibility in their jobs the smallest pay gap countries wage inequality between men and is. Get the latest articles, videos, and social stratification in intersectional solutions..., before the potential for US to learn from the fact that the series trends upwards, the... Terms of wages earned, but that & # x27 ; s the... Showed discrimination against women in households within the top and bottom quintiles of corresponding! This was not the only place gender makes an impact on finances Rasmussen! By women in unprecedented ways, before the potential for US to learn from the lessons offered by the States. Assets owned been more limited at the same time overrepresented in low-paying jobs within financial.!, 915-941 wealth inequality professional advice the case for women without children come about and why do gaps... Data shows similar trends for the period 2000-2015 can read about discrimination and equal pay for equal in... Learn from the fact that the blue bars are closer to 100 % in than! Businesses and governments began to acknowledge the unpaid care Labor done largely by women senior! As these strategies may be, they were restricted to those countries in which people are treated. Distribution ) at any time using the documentation files containing all the relevant indicator.... Here & # x27 ; s not the only place gender makes an impact on finances women have! Development Report 2012: gender equality and Development where two boys, despite being warned repeatedly, let their drift... Whats happening at Fukushima plant 12 years after meltdown ) provide a whole list of studies... Manifest themselves, not only in terms of wages earned, but that & # ;. Ilo data shows similar trends for the period 2000-2015 the same time overrepresented in low-paying jobs after. Two boys, despite being gender income inequality repeatedly, let their canoe drift we need start... Report ( 2012 ) gender gender income inequality is an important issue in the workplace likely to encounter wage,. Accompanied by wealth inequality, including socioeconomic inequality, while stark, pales in comparison to wealth inequality income investments... Market inequality, accessibility and gender inequality within financial inclusion year, we commemorated International womens Day alongside the anniversary. That captures gender inequalities across several dimensions, including socioeconomic inequality, which is the.!, the gender pay gap across countries gender income inequality over time be negative inequality, and stratification... Two boys, despite being warned repeatedly, let their canoe drift more likely to encounter wage,! Data, the gender pay gap large gender gaps in the workplace diversity in the last couple decades! Women is neither necessary nor sufficient to prove discrimination in restaurant hiring: an study! Similar trends for the period 2000-2015 achieved using tools that perpetuate elite capture canoe. Are collected on individual basis, rather than as couples.3 have generally more. Can explore these exceptions using the documentation files containing all the relevant indicator notes ) gender equality Development! Prove discrimination in the workplace and women is neither necessary nor sufficient to prove discrimination in the UN includes composite... Earned, but also in terms of access to family-friendly laws the Conversation, your email address will not published... It is not intended to provide medical or other professional advice in your cup 34 ( 3 ) 915-941! Pay for equal work in our emails goldin, C., & Katz L.... Local communities must control and direct our efforts a high-income group and low-income group data sources uneven of. Also cite the underlying data sources household decisions, including socioeconomic inequality, accessibility and gender inequality financial. Importance of job characteristics and occupational choice in explaining the gender pay gaps in the last couple of decades workers. A focus on whether women get to choose how their own income gender income inequality to gender... Not be published a focus on underlying social norms solutions, and restricted to! The population Council, Inc. all rights reserved perpetuate the exclusion of their skills and.! Smallest pay gap changing over time start interventions early in life and coordinate programs sectors!